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docs/phoneme_model.md: move the manner of articulation details to this document.
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Reece H. Dunn
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# Phoneme Model
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- [Manner of Articulation](#manner-of-articulation)
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- [Air Flow](#air-flow)
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- [Initiator](#initiator)
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- [Target](#target)
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- [Manner](#manner)
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- [References](#references)
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----------
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@@ -24,6 +29,74 @@ how espeak-ng works internally.
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__NOTE:__ This model is in the process of being implemented. As such, the
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current implementation does not reflect this document.
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## Manner of Articulation
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The manner of articulation is described in terms of several distinct feature
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types. The possible manners of articulation are:
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| Manner of Articulation | Feature | Phoneme Model |
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|------------------------|-----------|-----------------------|
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| nasal | `nas` | `pmc egs nsl occ` |
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| plosive (stop) | `stp` | `pmc egs orl occ` |
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| affricate | `afr` | `pmc egs orl occ frr` |
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| fricative | `frc` | `pmc egs orl frv` |
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| tap/flap | `flp` | `pmc egs orl fla` |
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| trill | `trl` | `pmc egs orl tri` |
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| approximant | `apr` | `pmc egs orl app` |
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| click | `clk` | `vlc igs orl` |
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| ejective | `ejc` | `vlc igs orl occ` |
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| implosive | `imp` | `gtc igs` |
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| vowel | `vwl` | `pmc egs orl vow` |
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For `imp` consonants, they use the features of the base phoneme except for
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the `pmc` and `egs` features. Thus, a `nas imp` is a `gtc igs nsl occ`.
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The `vwl` phonemes are described using vowel height and backness features,
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while consonants (the other manners of articulation) are described using
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place of articulation features.
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Additionally, the manner of articulation can be refined using the following
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features:
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|----------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `lat` | lateral | The air flow is directed along the sides of the tongue. |
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| `sib` | sibilant | The air flow is directed through the teeth with the tongue. |
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### Air Flow
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `egs` | egressive | The air flow is moving outwards from the initiator to the target. |
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| `igs` | ingressive | The air flow is moving inwards from the target to the initiator. |
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### Initiator
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `pmc` | pulmonic | The diaphragm and lungs are used to generate the airstream. |
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| `gtc` | glottalic | The glottis is used to generate the airstream. |
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| `vlc` | velaric | The velum is closed and the tongue is used to generate the airstream. |
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| `pcv` | percussive | There is no airstream used to produce this sound. |
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### Target
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|------------|-------------------------------------------------|
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| `nsl` | nasal | The air flows through the nose. |
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| `orl` | oral | The air flows through the mouth. |
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### Manner
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|-------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `occ` | occlusive | The air flow is blocked within the vocal tract. |
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| `frv` | fricative | The air flow is constricted, causing turbulence. |
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| `fla` | flap | A single tap of the tongue against the secondary articulator. |
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| `tri` | trill | A rapid vibration of the primary articulator against the secondary articulator. |
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| `app` | approximant | The vocal tract is narrowed at the place of articulation without being turbulant. |
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| `vow` | vowel | The phoneme is articulated as a vowel instead of a consonant. |
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## References
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1. <a name="ref1"></a> Kirshenbaum, Evan,
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+22
-55
@@ -9,9 +9,6 @@
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- [Features](#features)
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- [Manner of Articulation](#manner-of-articulation)
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- [Air Flow](#air-flow)
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- [Initiator](#initiator)
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- [Target](#target)
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- [Manner](#manner)
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- [Phonation](#phonation)
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- [Place of Articulation](#place-of-articulation)
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- [Active Articulators](#active-articulators)
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@@ -483,27 +480,24 @@ diacritics.
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The manner of articulation is described in terms of several distinct feature
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types. The possible manners of articulation are:
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| Manner of Articulation | Feature | Symbol | Features |
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|------------------------|-----------|--------|-----------------------|
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| nasal | `nas` | | `pmc egs nsl occ` |
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| plosive (stop) | `stp` | | `pmc egs orl occ` |
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| affricate | `afr` | | `pmc egs orl occ frr` |
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| fricative | `frc` | | `pmc egs orl frv` |
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| tap/flap | `flp` | | `pmc egs orl fla` |
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| trill | `trl` | | `pmc egs orl tri` |
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| approximant | `apr` | | `pmc egs orl app` |
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| click | `clk` | | `vlc igs orl` |
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| ejective | `ejc` | | `vlc igs orl occ` |
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| implosive | `imp` | ◌ʼ | `gtc igs` |
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| vowel | `vwl` | | `pmc egs orl vow` |
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| Manner of Articulation | Feature | Symbol |
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|------------------------|-----------|--------|
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| nasal | `nas` | |
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| plosive (stop) | `stp` | |
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| affricate | `afr` | |
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| fricative | `frc` | |
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| tap/flap | `flp` | |
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| trill | `trl` | |
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| approximant | `apr` | |
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| click | `clk` | |
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| ejective | `ejc` | |
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| implosive | `imp` | ◌ʼ |
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| vowel | `vwl` | |
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The features for these manners of articulation are provided for convenience,
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and to make it easier to describe the IPA consonants. Internally, the
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distinct feature types are used.
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For `imp` consonants, they use the features of the base phoneme except for
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the `pmc` and `egs` features. Thus, a `nas imp` is a `gtc igs nsl occ`.
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The `vwl` phonemes are described using vowel height and backness features,
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while consonants (the other manners of articulation) are described using
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place of articulation features.
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@@ -511,49 +505,22 @@ place of articulation features.
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Additionally, the manner of articulation can be refined using the following
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features:
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|----------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `lat` | lateral | The air flow is directed along the sides of the tongue. |
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| `sib` | sibilant | The air flow is directed through the teeth with the tongue. |
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| Feature | Name |
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|---------|----------|
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| `lat` | lateral |
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| `sib` | sibilant |
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#### Air Flow
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### Air Flow
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| Feature | Symbol | Name | Description |
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|---------|--------|------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `egs` | ↑ | egressive | The air flow is moving outwards from the initiator to the target. |
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| `igs` | ↓ | ingressive | The air flow is moving inwards from the target to the initiator. |
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| Feature | Symbol | Name |
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|---------|--------|------------|
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| `egs` | ↑ | egressive |
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| `igs` | ↓ | ingressive |
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The ↑ and ↓ symbols are from the extended IPA<sup>\[<a href="#ref7">7</a>\]</sup>.
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They only need to be used when the air flow is different to the base IPA
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phoneme (e.g. using ↓ on pulmonic consonants).
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#### Initiator
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `pmc` | pulmonic | The diaphragm and lungs are used to generate the airstream. |
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| `gtc` | glottalic | The glottis is used to generate the airstream. |
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| `vlc` | velaric | The velum is closed and the tongue is used to generate the airstream. |
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| `pcv` | percussive | There is no airstream used to produce this sound. |
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#### Target
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|------------|-------------------------------------------------|
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| `nsl` | nasal | The air flows through the nose. |
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| `orl` | oral | The air flows through the mouth. |
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#### Manner
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| Feature | Name | Description |
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|---------|-------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
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| `occ` | occlusive | The air flow is blocked within the vocal tract. |
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| `frv` | fricative | The air flow is constricted, causing turbulence. |
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| `fla` | flap | A single tap of the tongue against the secondary articulator. |
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| `tri` | trill | A rapid vibration of the primary articulator against the secondary articulator. |
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| `app` | approximant | The vocal tract is narrowed at the place of articulation without being turbulant. |
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| `vow` | vowel | The phoneme is articulated as a vowel instead of a consonant. |
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### Phonation
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The phonation features describe the degree to which the glottis (vocal chords) are open or closed.
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